Method for estimating formation parameters from imaginary components of measured data

ABSTRACT

A system and method for determining formation parameters is provided. The system includes an induction logging tool having a plurality of transmitter coils. The induction logging tool further includes a plurality of receiver coils, each of the receiver coils being spaced apart from the transmitter coils by a predetermined distance and receiving a response signal from the formation. The system includes circuitry coupled to the induction logging tool, the circuitry determining voltages induced in the plurality of receiver coils by the response signal. The circuitry separates real or in-phase portions of the determined voltages from imaginary of ninety degrees out of phase portions of the determined voltages and determines formation parameters using imaginary portions of the measured voltages.

BACKGROUND

1.—Technical Field

Embodiments disclosed herein generally relate to the measurement ofelectrical characteristics of formations surrounding a borehole, andusing the measured electrical characteristics to estimate additional,non-measured, formation parameters. In particular, the disclosedembodiments are related to estimating formation parameters using onlythe imaginary, or reactive, components of the measured data.

2.—Description of Related Art

Induction logging is important in the search for and recovery ofsubterranean petroleum deposits. In particular, induction logging isused to determine the resistivity, conductivity, and other parameters ofearth formations surrounding a borehole. Induction logging involvesusing a transmitter to produce a field that is directed into the earthformations. The field induces eddy currents to flow in the formationsand the response from the formation is measured by a receiver. Specificproperties of the received signal can then be analyzed to determinespecific formation properties which is logged at the surface as afunction of the depth of the tool in the borehole.

In typical induction logging tools, the formation response to theresultant field can be difficult to measure because most of the signalat the receiver arrives directly from the transmitter to the receiver.This field that is received at the receiver directly from thetransmitter is known as the direct signal. To allow for improvedmeasurement of the formation response, the receiver is now typicallymade of two functional parts, a main portion of a receiver and a buckingportion of a receiver. In typical induction logging tools, thetransmitter and receiver are one or more coils, and the bucking coil iswound in the opposite direction to the main receiver coil to cancel thedirect signal.

The voltage generated by the direct signal has a phase offset of about90 degrees with respect to the phase of the current in the transmitter,and contributes to the imaginary or reactive portion of the voltagemeasured in the receiver. Even though most processing algorithms arebased substantially on the real part of the voltage and ignore theimaginary portion, it is still necessary to cancel the direct signalbecause it can be several orders of magnitude larger than the signalreceived from the formation and, thus, even small phase measurementerrors of the direct signal can produce a significant deviation in themeasurement of the real part of the measured voltage. In addition, anymovement of the coils caused by change in temperature or mechanicalvibration can produce additional direct imaginary or reactive parts ofsignals that are comparable in magnitude to the imaginary parts ofsignals that are normally generated by the formation. This makes itdifficult to accurately measure the imaginary signals and, thus, theimaginary part of the signal is generally disregarded and not used.

However, even using the real part of the signal does not provide optimalresults at all times. For example, when performing induction logging ator near boundaries between geological beds, known as bed boundaries,formations often have different resistivities on either side of the bedboundary such that the measure voltages exhibit what is known as horns.As defined in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,241,273 to Luling, horns aredefined as “a sharp local maximum with a peak resistivity at least twicethe resistivity on either side of the local maximum.” These horns growas the dip angle of the formation increases, and may provide unsuitableresults and errors near bed boundaries.

Consequently, there is a need to provide an induction logging tool thatis capable of producing more accurate results of formationcharacteristics at or near bed boundaries.

BRIEF SUMMARY

Consistent with some embodiments, there is provided a system fordetermining formation parameters. The system includes an inductionlogging tool that includes a plurality of transmitter coils, theplurality of transmitter coils transmitting an induction signal into theformation. The induction logging tool further includes a plurality ofreceiver coils, each of the receiver coils being spaced apart from thetransmitter coils by a predetermined distance and receiving a responsesignal from the formation. The system also includes circuitry coupled tothe induction logging tool, the circuitry determining voltages inducedin the plurality of receiver coils by the response signal, wherein thecircuitry is further configured to separate real portions of thedetermined voltages from imaginary portions of the determined voltagesand determine formation parameters using imaginary portions of themeasured voltages, wherein the real portions of the determined voltagesare in phase with a current on at least one of the transmitter coils andthe imaginary portions of the determined voltages are ninety degrees outof phase with the current on the at least one transmitter coil.

A method of determining selected parameters of a formation is alsoprovided. The method includes transmitting, by a plurality oftransmitters of an induction logging tool, an induction signal into theformation and receiving, by a plurality of receivers of the inductionlogging tool, a response signal from the formation. The method furtherincludes measuring voltages induced in the plurality of receivers by theresponse signal and separating, by circuitry, imaginary components ofthe measured voltages from real components of the measured voltages,wherein the real components of the determined voltages are in phase witha current on at least one of the transmitters and the imaginarycomponents of the determined voltages are ninety degrees out of phasewith the current on the at least one transmitter. The method alsoincludes determining, by the circuitry, selected parameters of theformation using the imaginary components of the measured voltages.

These and other embodiments will be described in further detail below,with reference to the following drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates an induction logging tool in a formation, consistentwith some embodiments.

FIG. 2 illustrates a transformation from a coordinate system (x, y, z)of an induction logging tool to a coordinate system (x″, y″, z″) of aformation.

FIG. 3 illustrates a conceptual coil arrangement for an induction tool.

FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating the imaginary portion of a measuredvoltage and the real portion of the measured voltage.

FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating the imaginary portion of a measuredvoltage and the real portion of the measured voltage.

FIGS. 6, 7, and 8 are graphs comparing the strike angle β determinedusing the imaginary or reactive portion of the measured voltage and thestrike angle β determined using the real portion of the measuredvoltage.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating a method for determining selectedparameters of a formation using the imaginary components of measuredvoltages, consistent with some embodiments.

Wherever possible, the same reference numbers are used throughout thedrawings to refer to the same or like elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 illustrates an induction logging tool in a formation, consistentwith some embodiments. As shown in FIG. 1, induction logging tool 102 isoriented in a formation 104 at a dip angle α with respect to formation104. Formation 104 includes a first layer 106 having a first horizontalresistivity R_(h1), a second layer 108 having a second horizontalresistivity R_(h2), and a third layer 110 having a third resistivityR_(h3). Consistent with some embodiments, induction logging tool 102 mayinclude one or more receivers/transmitter pairs or triads 112 spacedalong tool 102. Receiver/transmitter pairs or triads 112 may be used toinduce a field into formation 104 and receive a voltage representativeof certain parameters of formation 104 including but not limited to dipangle α, first, second, and third horizontal resistivities R_(h1),R_(h2), and R_(h3), and a strike angle β (not shown). Induction loggingtool 102 may be coupled to circuitry 114 for processing measurementsmade by one or more receiver/transmitter pairs or triads 112. Circuitry114 may be located within induction logging tool 102 in someembodiments, while in other embodiments circuitry 114 may be located atthe surface or at a location remote from the dig site. Consistent withsome embodiments, circuitry 114 may be a processing device, such as anembedded processor or computing device. In some embodiments, circuitry114 may be dedicated circuits or programmable devices designed toperform specific processing operations on measured signals. Consistentwith some embodiments, memory 116 may be coupled to circuitry forstoring the measured voltages and for storing instructions forprocessing measurements made by the one or more receiver/transmitterpairs or triads 112. Further consistent with some embodiments, inductionlogging tool 102 may be attached to a rotating drill string in a loggingwhile drilling (LWD) or measuring while drilling (MWD) arrangement.

Typically, a formation model is used to interpret the logged voltagemeasurements to determine the formation parameters using circuitry 114.A typical model is a uniaxial anisotropy model that assumes thatformation 104 is isotropic in the horizontal direction (parallel to thebedding plane) and anisotropic in the vertical direction (perpendicularto the bedding plane). By preparing a coordinate system specific toformation 104 such that the z-axis is perpendicular to layers 106-110,and the x- and y-axes are parallel to layers 106-110 allows for aconductivity tensor to be defined

$\sigma = \begin{bmatrix}\sigma_{h} & 0 & 0 \\0 & \sigma_{h} & 0 \\0 & 0 & \sigma_{v}\end{bmatrix}$

where σ_(h) is a horizontal conductivity of formation 104 and σ_(v) is avertical conductivity of formation 104.

However, the axes of the formation coordinate system typically do notcorrespond to the axes of the tool coordinate system. Indeed, as shownin FIG. 1, induction logging tool 102 has an axis of x, y, z, whileformation has a different axis of x″, y″, z″. Thus, in order tocalculate the conductivity and other parameters a rotational transformcan be defined. FIG. 2 illustrates a transformation from a coordinatesystem (x, y, z) of induction logging tool 102 to a coordinate system(x″, y″, z″) of formation 104. The coordinate system is first rotatedabout the z-axis by the strike angle β, the strike angle β referring toan angle between the y-axis of the induction logging tool system ofcoordinates and a strike line of formation 104, the strike line being aline representing an intersection of formation 104 with a horizontalplane. The rotation about the strike angle β forms the coordinate systemof x′, y′, and z′. This intermediate coordinate system is then furtherrotated about the y′ axis by the dip angle α to obtain a coordinatesystem of formation 104 (x″, y″, z″).

Of course, any vector v″ in the coordinate system of formation 104 canbe expressed in the coordinate system of induction logging tool 102 byanother rotational transform:

v=Rv″

where the rotation transform matrix R is

$R = {\begin{bmatrix}{\cos \mspace{14mu} \alpha \mspace{11mu} \cos \mspace{14mu} \beta} & {\cos \mspace{14mu} \alpha \mspace{11mu} \sin \mspace{14mu} \beta} & {{- \sin}\mspace{14mu} \alpha} \\{{- \sin}\mspace{14mu} \alpha} & {\cos \mspace{14mu} \beta} & 0 \\{\sin \mspace{11mu} \alpha \mspace{14mu} \cos \mspace{14mu} \beta} & {\sin \mspace{11mu} \alpha \mspace{14mu} \sin \mspace{14mu} \beta} & {\cos \mspace{14mu} \alpha}\end{bmatrix}.}$

Following the definition of the rotational transform, the measurementsof the induction tool can be explained. FIG. 3 illustrates a conceptualcoil arrangement for an induction tool. Consistent with someembodiments, coil arrangement 300 may correspond to receiver/transmitterpairs or triads 112. Coil arrangement 300 includes a triad oftransmitter coils T_(x), T_(y), and T_(z), wherein each coil is orientedin a direction along a respective x, y, and z axis such that each of theaxes are orthogonal with one another. Consistent with some embodiments,each transmitter coil, T_(x), T_(y), or T_(z), operates at the samefrequency and is operated one at a time such that at any time, only oneof T_(x), T_(y), or T_(z) transmitting a signal. Consistent with otherembodiments, each transmitter coil T_(x), T_(y), and T_(z) operates atdifferent frequencies such that one or more transmitter coil T_(x),T_(y), or T_(z) operate simultaneously. Coil arrangement 300 alsoincludes a triad of receiver coils R_(x), R_(y), and R_(z) wherein eachcoil is oriented in a direction along a respective x, y, and z, axissuch that each of the axes are orthogonal with one another. AlthoughFIG. 3 illustrates triads of transmitter and receiver coils arranged inthree orthogonal orientations, the triads may be in other non-orthogonalorientations provided that the orientations of the coils are linearlyindependent on one another. In such linearly independent orientationsthe data may be transformed to an orthogonal system using well knownmethods. Coil arrangement 300 may also include one or more buckingreceiver coils (not shown) between the transmitter coils and thereceiver coils, wherein the bucking receiver coil is wound in anopposite direction to the main receiver coil to cancel the direct signalfrom the transmitter coils.

Consistent with some embodiments, receiver coils R_(x), R_(y), R_(z) maybe used to measure voltage indicative of formation parameters. Theoverall voltage detected by coil arrangement 300 V may be defined asV_(ij), which represents the voltage measured by the jth receiver fromthe ith transmitter. As discussed above, when the transmitter coils areoperating at the same frequency, only one transmitter coil is operatingat a time such that the receiver coils can differentiate the signalsattributed to the active transmitter. Consequently, the voltage tensormay be defined as:

$\begin{matrix}{\overset{\overset{\_}{\_}}{V} = \begin{bmatrix}V_{xx} & V_{yx} & V_{zx} \\V_{xy} & V_{yy} & V_{zy} \\V_{xz} & V_{yz} & V_{zz}\end{bmatrix}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

The diagonal components of the measured voltages in Equation (1)(V_(xx), V_(yy), and V_(zz)) will be heavily influenced by the directsignal, which will make it difficult to use the imaginary or reactiveportion of the measured voltages in determining formation parameters. Onthe other hand, the off-diagonal terms (V_(yx), V_(xy), V_(yz), V_(zx),V_(xz) and V_(zy)) will be relatively free from the direct signals, andthe measurements of those components in vacuum is, with or withoutbucking coils, approximately zero. Thus, the imaginary or reactiveportions of the measured off-diagonal voltages may be used indetermining formation parameters that are relatively free from errorsattributed to a strong measured direct signal Moreover, the imaginary orreactive portions of the measured voltages may be used to determineformation parameters in much the same way that the real portions of themeasured voltages are used. Consistent with some embodiments, the realand imaginary (or reactive) portions of the measured voltages aredefined with respect to the current of a transmitter, and moreparticularly with respect to the active transmitter. Consequently,according to such embodiments, the real portion of the measured voltageis the portion that is in phase with the current of the activetransmitter and the imaginary portion of the measured voltage is theportion that is 90 degrees out of phase with the current of the activetransmitter. For example, in measuring the voltage V_(zy), the realportion of the measured voltage is the portion that is in phase with theactive transmitter (T_(z)), and the imaginary portion of the measuredvoltage is the portion that 90 degrees out of phase with the activetransmitter (T_(z)). Although the voltage tensor shown in equation (1)is obtained using an arrangement of three transmitters and threereceivers, fewer transmitters and receivers may be used in embodimentswhen logging tool 102 is rotating. Moreover, consistent with otherembodiments, when the transmitter coils are operating at differentfrequencies, one or more of the transmitter coils may be operatingsimultaneously and the receiver coils may differentiate the receivedvoltages attributed to each transmitter coil by using frequency-basedfiltering.

The magnetic field responses in a tool coordinate system formulti-coordinate induction logging tool, such as tool 102 having coilarrangement 300 in transverse-isotropic formations with zero strike maybe expressed as a matrix H having the form:

$H = {\begin{bmatrix}H_{xx} & 0 & H_{zx} \\0 & H_{yy} & 0 \\H_{xz} & 0 & H_{zz}\end{bmatrix}.}$

The voltage V is proportional to the magnetic field H and thisproportionality may be accounted for during processing and, forsimplicity we can refer to the voltage V using the same equation as forthe magnetic field responses in a tool coordinate system formulti-coordinate induction logging tool, such as tool 102 having coilarrangement 300 in transverse-isotropic formations with zero strike:

$\overset{\overset{\_}{\_}}{V} = {\begin{bmatrix}V_{xx} & 0 & V_{zx} \\0 & V_{yy} & 0 \\V_{xz} & 0 & V_{zz}\end{bmatrix}.}$

Based on a standard Euler rotation, a relationship between the voltage V^(t) in the tool coordinate system t and V can be derived from

V ^(t) =R ^(T) · V·R,

where R is the rotation matrix with respect to strike angle β:

$R = {\begin{bmatrix}{\cos \mspace{14mu} \beta} & {\sin \mspace{14mu} \beta} & 0 \\{{- \sin}\mspace{14mu} \beta} & {\cos \mspace{14mu} \beta} & 0 \\0 & 0 & 1\end{bmatrix}.}$

From the above equations, we can determine that the components of thevoltage in V ^(t) in the tool coordinate system based on the voltage Vinduced on coil arrangement 300 will be:

$\begin{matrix}{\begin{bmatrix}V_{xx}^{t} & V_{yx}^{t} & V_{zx}^{t} \\V_{xy}^{t} & V_{yy}^{t} & V_{zy}^{t} \\V_{xz}^{t} & V_{yz}^{t} & V_{zz}^{t}\end{bmatrix} = {\quad{\begin{bmatrix}{{V_{xx}\cos^{2\mspace{11mu}}\beta} - {V_{yy}\sin^{2}\mspace{14mu} \beta}} & {\left( {V_{xx} - V_{yy}} \right)\cos \mspace{14mu} \beta \mspace{14mu} \sin \mspace{14mu} \beta} & {V_{xz}\cos \mspace{14mu} \beta} \\{\left( {V_{xx} - V_{yy}} \right)\cos \mspace{14mu} \beta \mspace{14mu} \sin \mspace{14mu} \beta} & {{V_{yy}\cos^{2}\mspace{11mu} \beta} - {V_{xx}\sin^{2}\mspace{11mu} \beta}} & {V_{xz}\sin \mspace{14mu} \beta} \\{V_{zx}\cos \mspace{14mu} \beta} & {V_{zx}\sin \mspace{14mu} \beta} & V_{zz}\end{bmatrix}.}}} & (2)\end{matrix}$

Finally, based on equation (2), we can obtain the following solutionsfor strike angle β:

$\begin{matrix}{\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{V_{yz}^{t}}{V_{xz}^{t}} \right)}} & (3) \\{\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{V_{zy}^{t}}{V_{zx}^{t}} \right)}} & (4) \\{\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{V_{zy}^{t} + V_{yz}^{t}}{V_{zx}^{t} + V_{xz}^{t}} \right)}} & (5) \\{\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{\left( \frac{V_{xy}^{t} + V_{yx}^{t}}{V_{xx}^{t} - V_{yy}^{t}} \right)}{2} \right)}} & (6) \\{\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \sqrt{\frac{\left( \frac{V_{yz}^{t}}{V_{xz}^{t}} \right)^{2} + \left( \frac{V_{zy}^{t}}{V_{zx}^{t}} \right)^{2}}{2}} \right)}} & (7)\end{matrix}$

These equations may be rewritten to use only the imaginary portions ofthe measured voltages as follows:

$\begin{matrix}{\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{yz}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{xz}^{t} \right)} \right)}} & (8) \\{\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} \right)}} & (9) \\{\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{yz}^{t} \right)}}{{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{xz}^{t} \right)}} \right)}} & (10) \\{\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{\left( \frac{{{Im}\left( V_{xy}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{yx}^{t} \right)}}{{{Im}\left( V_{xx}^{t} \right)} - {{Im}\left( V_{yy}^{t} \right)}} \right)}{2} \right)}} & (11) \\{\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \sqrt{\frac{\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{yz}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{xz}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2} + \left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2}}{2}} \right)}} & (12)\end{matrix}$

As discussed in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,393,364 to Gao et al., andassigned to the same assignee as the present disclosure, equations forcalculating an approximate estimation for the dip angle α, can bederived from the magnetic field responses in a tool coordinate systemfor a multi-component induction logging tool in a homogenous dippinganisotropic formation as

$\mspace{20mu} {{H_{xz}^{t} = {\frac{\cos \; \beta \; {\sin \left( {2\; \alpha} \right)}}{8\; \pi \; L_{M}^{3}{\sin^{2}(\alpha)}}\; k_{h}{L_{M}\left( {^{\; k_{h}L_{M}A} - ^{\; k_{h}L_{M}}} \right)}}};}$  H_(zx)^(t) = H_(xz)^(t);$\mspace{20mu} {{H_{yz}^{t} = {\frac{\sin \; \beta \; {\sin \left( {2\; \alpha} \right)}}{8\; \pi \; L_{M}^{3}{\sin^{2}(\alpha)}}\; k_{h}{L_{M}\left( {^{\; k_{h}L_{M}A} - ^{\; k_{h}L_{M}}} \right)}}};}$  H_(zy)^(t) = H_(yz)^(t);${H_{yx}^{t} = {\frac{\sin \; 2\; \beta}{8\; \pi \; L_{M}^{3}}\left\lbrack {{k_{h}^{2}{L_{M}^{2}\left( {^{\; k_{h}L_{M}} - \frac{^{\; k_{h}L_{M}A}}{A\; \lambda^{2}}} \right)}} + {\; k_{h}{L_{M}\left( {^{\; k_{h}L_{M}A} - ^{\; k_{h}L_{M}}} \right)}\frac{{\cos^{2}\alpha} + 1}{\sin^{2}\alpha}}} \right\rbrack}};$  and   H_(xy)^(t) = H_(yx)^(t),

where k_(h) is the horizontal wave number determined by k_(h)=√{squareroot over (iωμσ_(h))}, σ_(h) is the horizontal conductivity, σ_(v) isthe vertical conductivity, and ω is the frequency, λ is the anisotropycoefficient determined by

${\lambda = {\sqrt{\frac{\sigma_{h}}{\sigma_{v}}} = \sqrt{\frac{R_{v}}{R_{h}}}}},$

A is the anisotropy factor determined by

${A = \sqrt{{\sin^{2}\alpha} + \frac{\lambda^{2}\cos^{2}\alpha}{\lambda}}},$

and L_(M) is the transmitter-receiver spacing for a bucking receiver anda main receiver.

Assuming a transmitter-receiver spacing that is approaching zero, basedon the equations above, the following equation may be derived for thereal part of the magnetic field components:

${\left( H_{yx}^{t} \right)_{R} = {\left( H_{xy}^{t} \right)_{R} = {\frac{\sin \; 2\; \beta}{8\; \pi}\left\lbrack {\left( {A^{2} - 1} \right)\left( \frac{1}{\delta} \right)^{3}} \right\rbrack}}};$${\left( H_{zx}^{t} \right)_{R} = {\left( H_{xz}^{t} \right)_{R} = {\frac{\cos \; \beta \; \sin \; 2\; \alpha}{8\; {{\pi sin}^{2}(\alpha)}}\left\lbrack {\left( {A^{2} - 1} \right)\left( \frac{1}{\delta} \right)^{3}} \right\rbrack}}};$${{{and}\left( H_{zy}^{t} \right)}_{R} = {\left( H_{yz}^{t} \right)_{R} = {\frac{\sin \; \beta \; \sin \; 2\; \alpha}{8\; {{\pi sin}^{2}(\alpha)}}\left\lbrack {\left( {A^{2} - 1} \right)\left( \frac{1}{\delta} \right)^{3}} \right\rbrack}}},$

where δ is the skin depth for horizontal conductivity and resistivitygiven as

$\delta = {\sqrt{\frac{2}{\omega \; \mu \; \sigma_{h}}}.}$

The dip angle α can then be determined as

$\begin{matrix}{\alpha = {{\tan^{- 1}\left\lbrack \sqrt{\left( {\left( \frac{\left( H_{xy}^{t} \right)_{R}}{\left( H_{zx}^{t} \right)_{R}} \right)^{2} + \left( \frac{\left( H_{xy}^{t} \right)_{R}}{\left( H_{zy}^{t} \right)_{R}} \right)^{2}} \right)} \right\rbrack}.}} & (13)\end{matrix}$

Finally, because the real component of the magnetic field is identicalto the imaginary or reactive component of the voltage other than aconstant value, the dip angle α can be determined based on the imaginarycomponent of the measured voltage using the following equation:

$\begin{matrix}{\alpha = {{\tan^{- 1}\left\lbrack \sqrt{\left( {\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{xy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2} + \left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{xy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2}} \right)} \right\rbrack}.}} & (14)\end{matrix}$

The formation resistivities R_(h) and R_(v) and formation conductivitiesσ_(h) and σ_(v) may be further estimated based on calculated dip angle αand strike angle β, calculated using the equations above, as discussedin the article by Moran and Gianzero, entitled “Effects of formationanisotropy on resistivity-logging measurements,” Geophysics, vol. 41,no. 7 (July 1979), pp. 1266-1286 using the following equations:

σ_(xx)=σ_(h)+(σ_(v)−σ_(h))sin² α cos² β  (15)

σ_(yy)=σ_(h)+(σ_(v)−σ_(h))sin² α sin² β  (16)

σ_(zz)=σ_(v)−(σ_(v)+σ_(h))sin² α  (17)

σ_(xy)=σ_(yx)=(σ_(v)−σ_(h))sin² α sin β cos β  (18)

σ_(xz)=σ_(zx)=(σ_(v)−σ_(h))sin α cos α cos β  (19)

σ_(yz)=σ_(zy)=(σ_(v)−σ_(h))sin α cos α sin β  (20)

The apparent resistivities R_(ij) of formation 104 are proportional tothe measured voltages, as discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,765,386, assignedto the same assignee as the present disclosure, and can be used todetermine the apparent conductivities, which are the inverse of theapparent resistivities:

$R_{ij} = {\frac{1}{\sigma_{ij}}.}$

Knowing the apparent conductivities, the determined dip angle α, and thedetermined strike angle β, the horizontal conductivity σ_(h) and thevertical conductivity σ_(v) may be estimated using equations (15)-(20).The estimated horizontal conductivity σ_(h) and vertical conductivityσ_(v) may be further corrected using skin effect correction and boreholeeffect correction to provide corrected values for the horizontalconductivity σ_(h) and the vertical conductivity σ_(v). Similarly,because the resistivity is the inverse of the conductivity, such that

$R_{h} = \frac{1}{\sigma_{h}}$ and ${R_{v} = \frac{1}{\sigma_{v}}},$

the horizontal resistivity R_(h) and vertical resistivity R_(v) mayfurther be determined from the estimated or corrected horizontalconductivity σ_(h) and vertical conductivity σ_(y). Although theequations presented herein are valid for triads arranged in anorthogonal arrangement, such as shown in FIG. 3, the equations may beused for non-orthogonal but linearly independent arrangements as well.In such non-orthogonal but linearly independent arrangements, themeasured voltages would have to be first transformed to an orthogonalsystem. Following the transformation of the measured voltages, theequations shown herein could be used for non-orthogonal but linearlyindependent arrangements.

As demonstrated herein, determining formation parameters using theimaginary portions of the measured voltage provide improved results overformation parameters determined using the real portions of the measuredvoltages, particularly in the presence of dipping bed boundaries and inanisotropic formations. FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating the imaginaryportion of a measured voltage and the real portion of the measuredvoltage, with a distance between transmitter coils and receiver coilsbeing about 80 inches. Although FIG. 4 illustrates the real andimaginary portions of V_(xy), similar graphs may be obtained using othernon-diagonal components of the measured voltages. As shown in FIG. 4,the real part of the measured voltage (shown as a solid line) exhibitssharp variations near bed boundaries while the imaginary portion (shownas a dashed line) of the measured voltages is much smoother near bedboundaries.

FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating the imaginary portion of a measuredvoltage and the real portion of the measured voltage. In particular,FIG. 5 is a graph also illustrating the real and imaginary portions ofV_(xy) for a transmitter-receiver separation that is less than thetransmitter-receiver separation shown in FIG. 4. However, the resultshown in FIG. 4 is also shown in FIG. 5: the real part of the measuredvoltage (shown as a solid line) exhibits sharp variations near bedboundaries while the imaginary portion of the measured voltages (shownas a dashed line) is much smoother near bed boundaries.

FIGS. 6, 7, and 8 are graphs illustrating the strike angle β determinedusing the imaginary portion of the measured voltage and the strike angleβ determined using the real portion of the measured voltage. Consistentwith some embodiments, the strike angle β is determined using equation(3)-(12), above. In particular, the strike angle β was determined usingequations (4) and (9) in FIG. 6, using equations (3) and (8) in FIG. 7,and using equations (5) and (10) in FIG. 8. As shown in FIGS. 6-8, usingthe imaginary portion of the measured voltages (shown by a solid line)provides improved results over the real portions (shown using a dashedline). In particular, as shown in FIGS. 6-8, for a known strike angle βof 70°, the calculations based on the imaginary portions of the measuredvoltages provide very good results throughout formation 104. Theaccurate results are due to the decreased sensitivity of the imaginarycomponents of the off-diagonal measured voltages to variation around bedboundaries, which removes the artifacts that are produced when the realpart of the measured voltages are used. This is shown in FIGS. 6-8 bythe prominence of “horns” in the strike angle calculated using the realportion, and the lack of “horns” in the strike angle calculated usingthe imaginary or reactive portion. Thus, the off-diagonal components ofthe imaginary portions of the measured voltages, which are free fromdirect signal influence, may be used to provide stable measurements offormation parameters in a layered anisotropic formation, including aborehole.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating a method for determining selectedparameters of a formation using the imaginary components of measuredvoltages, consistent with some embodiments. The method illustrated inFIG. 9 will be discussed in conjunction with FIGS. 1 and 3, whereappropriate. As shown in FIG. 9, the method begins by transmitting aninduction signal into formation 104 (902). Consistent with someembodiments, the induction signal is transmitted into formation bytransmitter coils T_(x), T_(y), and T_(z) of coil arrangement 300. Aresponse signal from formation 104 is then received by receiver coilsR_(x), R_(y), and R_(z) of coil arrangement 300 (904). Voltages inducedin receiver coils R_(x), R_(y), and R_(z) of coil arrangement 300 arethen measured by circuitry 114 (906). Circuitry 114 then separates theimaginary or reactive components of the measured voltages from the realcomponents of the measured voltages (908). Finally, circuitry 114determines selected parameters of formation using the imaginarycomponents of the measured voltages (910). As discussed herein, theselected parameters may include a strike angle β, a dip angle α,horizontal and vertical conductivities σ_(h) and σ_(v) and horizontaland vertical resistivities R_(h) and R_(v) and may be determined usingthe equations derived above. Further consistent with some embodiments,the selected parameters may be determined using only the off-diagonalcomponents of the measured voltages, V_(yx), V_(xy), V_(yz), V_(zx),V_(xz) and V_(zy).

Consequently, embodiments described herein provide a method fordetermining formation parameters using the imaginary or reactiveportions of a measured voltages which provide improved accuracy over thereal portions particularly in the presence of bed boundaries and layeredanisotropic formations including a borehole. Embodiments describedherein are exemplary only. One skilled in the art may recognize variousalternative embodiments from those specifically disclosed. Thosealternative embodiments are also intended to be within the scope of thisdisclosure. As such, the embodiments are limited only by the followingclaims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system for determining formation parameters,comprising: an induction logging tool, the induction logging toolcomprising: a plurality of transmitter coils, the plurality oftransmitter coils transmitting at least one induction signal into theformation; and a plurality of receiver coils, each of the receiver coilsbeing spaced apart from the transmitter coils by a predetermineddistance and receiving a response signal from the formation, theresponse signal being induced by the at least one induction signal;circuitry coupled to the induction logging tool, the circuitrydetermining voltages induced in the plurality of receiver coils by theresponse signal, wherein the circuitry is further configured to separatereal portions of the determined voltages from imaginary portions of thedetermined voltages and determine formation parameters using imaginaryportions of the measured voltages, wherein the real portions of thedetermined voltages are in phase with a current on at least one of thetransmitter coils and the imaginary portions of the determined voltagesare ninety degrees out of phase with the current on the at least onetransmitter coil.
 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the determinedvoltages have the form of V=V_(ij), wherein V_(ij) is a voltage inducedon the j-th receiver coil by the i-th transmitter coil.
 3. The system ofclaim 2, wherein the plurality of receiver coils include three receivercoils oriented in three linearly independent directions, generallyreferred to as an x direction, a y direction, and a z direction, and theplurality of transmitter coils include three transmitter coils alsooriented in the x, y, and z directions, such that the determinedvoltages have the form $\overset{=}{V} = {\begin{bmatrix}V_{xx} & V_{xy} & V_{xz} \\V_{yx} & V_{yy} & V_{yz} \\V_{zx} & V_{zy} & V_{zz}\end{bmatrix}.}$
 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the x direction, they direction and the z direction are orthogonal to each other.
 5. Thesystem of claim 3, wherein the x direction, the y direction, and the zdirection are not orthogonal to each other and the determined voltagesare transformed to an orthogonal orientation.
 6. The system of claim 3,wherein the selected formation parameters include at least one of a dipangle α, a strike angle β, a horizontal resistivity R_(h), a verticalresistivity R_(v), a horizontal conductivity σ_(h), and a verticalconductivity σ_(v).
 7. The system of claim 6, wherein the dip angle α isdetermined using the equation${\alpha = {\tan^{- 1}\left\lbrack \sqrt{\left( {\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{xy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2} + \left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{xy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2}} \right)} \right\rbrack}},$wherein Im(V^(t) _(ij)) is the imaginary component of the voltageinduced on the j-th receiver by the i-th transmitter in a coordinatesystem t of the induction logging tool.
 8. The system of claim 6,wherein the strike angle β is determined using at least one of thefollowing equations:${\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{yz}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{xz}^{t} \right)} \right)}};$${\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} \right)}};$${\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{yz}^{t} \right)}}{{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{xz}^{t} \right)}} \right)}};$${\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{\left( \frac{{{Im}\left( V_{xy}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{yx}^{t} \right)}}{{{Im}\left( V_{xx}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{yy}^{t} \right)}} \right)}{2} \right)}};$and${\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \sqrt{\frac{\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{yz}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{xz}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2} + \left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2}}{2}} \right)}},$wherein Im(V_(t) _(ij)) is the imaginary component of the voltageinduced on the j-th receiver by the i-th transmitter in a coordinatesystem t of the induction logging tool.
 9. The method of claim 3,wherein the selected parameters of the formation are determined usingthe imaginary components of V_(yx), V_(zy), V_(yz), V_(xz), , V_(zx) andV_(xy).
 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the formation parameters aredetermined at locations around edges of a borehole or at locations atbed boundaries.
 11. The system of claim 1, wherein the formationparameters are determined for a layered anisotropic formation.
 12. Thesystem of claim 1, wherein the circuitry comprises at least one of thefollowing: a processor coupled to the induction logging tool, aprocessor located within the induction logging tool, and circuitryconfigured to separate imaginary components of the measured voltagesfrom real components of the measured voltages and to determine selectedparameters of the formation using the imaginary components of themeasured voltages.
 13. The system of claim 1, wherein the plurality oftransmitter coils alternate transmitting the at least one inductionsignal such that only one transmitter coil of the plurality oftransmitter coils is active at a time.
 14. The system of claim 1,wherein the plurality of transmitter coils each transmit at least oneinduction signal each having a different frequency.
 15. A method ofdetermining selected parameters of a formation, comprising:transmitting, by a plurality of transmitters of an induction loggingtool, at least one induction signal into the formation; receiving, by aplurality of receivers of the induction logging tool, a response signalfrom the formation, the response signal being induced by the at leastone induction signal; measuring voltages induced in the plurality ofreceivers by the response signal; separating, by circuitry, imaginarycomponents of the measured voltages from real components of the measuredvoltages, wherein the real components of the determined voltages are inphase with a current on at least one of the transmitters and theimaginary components of the determined voltages are ninety degrees outof phase with the current on the at least one transmitter; anddetermining, by the circuitry, selected parameters of the formationusing the imaginary components of the measured voltages.
 16. The methodof claim 15, wherein the measured voltages have the form of V=V_(ij),wherein V_(ij) is a voltage induced on the j-th receiver by the i-thtransmitter.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the plurality ofreceivers include three receivers oriented in three linearly independentdirections, generally referred to as an x direction, a y direction, anda z direction, and the plurality of transmitters include threetransmitters also oriented in the x, y, and z directions, such that themeasured voltages have the form $\overset{=}{V} = {\begin{bmatrix}V_{xx} & V_{xy} & V_{xz} \\V_{yx} & V_{yy} & V_{yz} \\V_{zx} & V_{zy} & V_{zz}\end{bmatrix}.}$
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the x direction,the y direction and the z direction are orthogonal to each other. 19.The system of claim 17, wherein the x direction, the y direction, andthe z direction are not orthogonal to each other and the determinedvoltages are transformed to an orthogonal orientation.
 20. The method ofclaim 17, wherein the selected formation parameters include at least oneof a dip angle α, a strike angle β, a horizontal resistivity R_(h), avertical resistivity R_(v), a horizontal conductivity σ_(h), and avertical conductivity σ_(v).
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein the dipangle α is determined using the equation${\alpha = {\tan^{- 1}\left\lbrack \sqrt{\left( {\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{xy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2} + \left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{xy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2}} \right)} \right\rbrack}},$wherein Im(V_(t) _(ij)) is the imaginary component of the voltageinduced on the j-th receiver by the i-th transmitter in a coordinatesystem t of the induction logging tool.
 22. The method of claim 20,wherein the strike angle β is determined using at least one of thefollowing equations:${\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{yz}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{xz}^{t} \right)} \right)}};$${\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} \right)}};$${\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{yz}^{t} \right)}}{{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{xz}^{t} \right)}} \right)}};$${\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{\left( \frac{{{Im}\left( V_{xy}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{yx}^{t} \right)}}{{{Im}\left( V_{xx}^{t} \right)} + {{Im}\left( V_{yy}^{t} \right)}} \right)}{2} \right)}};$and${\beta = {\tan^{- 1}\left( \sqrt{\frac{\left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{yz}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{xz}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2} + \left( \frac{{Im}\left( V_{zy}^{t} \right)}{{Im}\left( V_{zx}^{t} \right)} \right)^{2}}{2}} \right)}},$wherein Im(V_(t) _(ij)) is the imaginary component of the voltageinduced on the j-th receiver by the i-th transmitter in a coordinatesystem t of the induction logging tool.
 23. The method of claim 17,wherein determining selected parameters of the formation using theimaginary components of the induced voltages comprises using theimaginary components of V_(yx), V_(zy), V_(yz), V_(xz), V_(zx) andV_(xy).
 24. The method of claim 15, wherein the selected parameters aredetermined at locations around edges of a borehole or at locations atbed boundaries.
 25. The method of claim 15, wherein the selectedparameters are determined for a layered anisotropic formation.
 26. Themethod of claim 15, wherein the circuitry comprises at least one of thefollowing: a processor coupled to the induction logging tool, aprocessor located within the induction logging tool, and circuitryconfigured to separate imaginary components of the measured voltagesfrom real components of the measured voltages and to determine selectedparameters of the formation using the imaginary components of themeasured voltages.
 27. The method of claim 15, wherein transmitting atleast one induction signal into the formation comprises alternatinglytransmitting the at least one induction signal such that only onetransmitter coil of the plurality of transmitter coils is active at atime.
 28. The method of claim 15, wherein transmitting the at least oneinduction signal into the formation comprises transmitting an inductionsignal from each transmitter coil such that each induction signal has adifferent frequency.